Content creation has become a multibillion-dollar industry
The two major Allied superpowers of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union, became ideological enemies practically overnight. With the fascist threats in Europe and the Pacific Theater squashed, the Cold War began in earnest.
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was formed in 1938 as a special group of Representatives whose task was to vet and screen influential members of the public to ensure they had no ties to communism. HUAC's attention turned towards Hollywood in 1947, when Walt Disney and Ronald Reagan (pictured), then-president of the Screen Actors Guild and later President of the United States, testified in front of the committee and voiced concerns of serious and powerful communist sentiments within the film industry.
With communism on the rise in Europe and growing communist sympathies in the United States, the American government made communism and all its supporters public enemy number one. Whirlwinds of anti-communist propaganda and incessant rumors of Soviet insurgents and sleeper agents infiltrating the American public sent much of the government, and the public, into a paranoid frenzy known as the Second Red Scare.
McCarthyism, and later on Hooverism, was the common name of the federal government's witch hunt to weed out communist sympathizers in every walk of American life. Joseph McCarthy, the concept's namesake, was a Republican senator from Wisconsin, whose vehemently anti-communist sentiments galvanized the hunt for supposed insurgents, traitors, and informants across the country.
Actors, directors, screenwriters, and other creatives were quickly called to Washington, D.C. in droves. A group that came to be known as the Hollywood Ten were the first to be blacklisted and effectively banned from working in their industry. For some, no concrete links to communism could be found, but the simple act of refusing to testify or relinquish names of 'insurgents,' or pleading the Fifth Amendment, was enough for the committee to confirm their suspicions. All 10 were convicted of contempt of Congress.
The first actor to be blacklisted as a result of 'Red Channels' was Jean Muir. First appearing on stage at the age of 19 in 1930's 'The Truth Game,' Muir quickly became a star on stage and on screen. Already a firebrand at odds with Hollywood's elite for helping form the Screen Actors Guild, Muir's career effectively ended once her name became associated with communism.
Widely hailed as one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, Orson Welles was an outspoken critic of capitalism, and thus seen as a supporter of communism. Welles had already fled to Europe for tax shelter by the time three pages of 'Red Channels' were dedicated to him, but even being a continent away didn't shield him from ostracization.
Dalton Trumbo was at the center of the Hollywood Ten. Trumbo had been an acclaimed screenwriter, responsible for some of Hollywood's biggest hits, until his career lurched to a halt after being blacklisted by Hollywood. Trumbo continued to write, but was unable to put his name on his work for more than a decade, until 1960 when Hollywood collectively absolved him of suspicion.
Edward G. Robinson was an immensely popular actor during Hollywood's Golden Age and appeared in more than 100 films. Best known for his starring role in 1931's 'Little Caesar,' Robinson had been an outspoken anti-fascist during World War II. During the Cold War, however, he was labeled a communist and was blacklisted until he broke under the HUAC's pressure and threw some of his contemporaries under the bus.
It wasn't only professionals in the film industry who appeared in 'Red Channels.' Creatives of all sorts were condemned, including the prominent poet and satirist Dorothy Parker.
In 1950, after the HUAC Hollywood meetings had commenced, the right-wing newsletter Counterattack published a special edition titled 'Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television.' No fewer than 151 individuals in the entertainment industry were listed as communist cells in Hollywood. This list became the definitive Hollywood blacklist, with many more names being added as the years went on.
The multifaceted Paul Robeson, a player in the NFL, a bass-baritone singer, and actor, was a frequent victim of McCarthyism. A vocal proponent of civil rights and economic equality, Robeson was labeled a communist and banned from television in 1950.
Pete Seeger, a politically-active folk singer who had been a card-carrying communist since the war, was banned from performing on television and lost his recording contract after his name appeared in 'Red Channels.' When called to Washington, D.C., Seeger was charged with contempt of court and served a year in prison.
A pioneer of African-American representation on the silver screen, Lena Horne was adored by fans and critics alike for her singing voice and acting chops. Framed as a communist due to her civil rights activism, Horne's reputation was tarnished after the publishing of 'Red Channels,' and she was forced to work in nightclubs when she couldn't find work as an actress.
One of the most important poets of the 20th century, Langston Hughes championed the poetic expression of the African-American experience. His activism and staunch political views on civil rights, however, roused suspicion and led to his name being included in 'Red Channels.'
The iconic burlesque dancer Gypsy Rose Lee was a vocal supporter of liberal politics throughout her career, leading her to eventually be blacklisted from radio and television performances at the height of McCarthyism.
Acclaimed playwright Arthur Miller, known for penning 1949's 'Death of a Salesman,' one of the most popular plays in American history, was a vocal critic of McCarthyism. This was famously expressed in his 1953 play 'The Crucible,' a piece which compared the communist witch hunt of the 20th century to the literal American witch hunt of the 17th century. Miller was subpoenaed by the HUAC in 1956 and, after refusing to reveal the names of any communist conspirators, was charged with contempt of court and blacklisted from the theater.
The indisputable king of the silent film era, the English-born Charlie Chaplin had always threaded his opinions and politics into his films. He was thus labeled a communist and expelled from the United States after the government revoked his re-entry permit.
A widely respected star of stage and screen, Judy Holliday was best known for her Academy Award-winning performance in 1950's 'Born Yesterday.' When brought before the HUAC, Holliday cemented her opposition to Stalinism, but defended Americans' right to free speech, regardless of their political leanings.
New York native Lee Grant (pictured left) had hardly gotten her foot in Hollywood's door before she was blacklisted. Her first role in 1951's 'Detective Story' earned Grant an Oscar nod, but it wasn't long before she was labeled a communist. During the years of McCarthyism, Grant worked as a stage actor and teacher, but made an admirable comeback in the 1960s.
Prolific screenwriter Walter Bernstein was listed in 'Red Channels' due to his affiliations with numerous left-wing organizations. Despite being blacklisted, Bernstein continued to find work by writing under a host of pseudonyms.
One of the strongest personalities in the world of film, Sidney Poitier was blacklisted early on in his career due to his associations with other prominent blacklisted figures like Paul Robeson. Thankfully, his banishment didn't last long, and he was able to further his career as one of the greatest actors of his day.
John Garfield, a two-time Academy Award-nominated Hollywood actor, was one of a multitude of creatives called before the HUAC who had no communist affiliations, but, refusing to name any names, was held in contempt of Congress and blacklisted regardless.
A ubiquitous face in Hollywood's Golden Age, Marsha Hunt is known for her performances in classics such as 1937's 'Born to the West' and 1940's 'Pride and Prejudice.' A board member of the Screen Actors Guild, Hunt took part in protest against the HUAC, landing her a place in 'Red Channels' and being subsequently blacklisted by Hollywood.
Celebrated jazz pianist Hazel Scott grew so quickly in popularity that she landed her own television program, 'The Hazel Scott Show,' at the age of 30. Her activity in the early civil rights movement, however, led to her show being canceled after her name appeared in 'Red Channels.' Scott relocated to Europe and continued performing in France, not returning to the United States for decades.
A close friend of Sidney Poitier and Martin Luther King Jr. and an organizer of the 1963 March on Washington, Harry Belafonte's civil rights activism landed him in hot water with the HUAC. The singer and actor, whose 1956 'Calypso' became the first solo album in history to sell one million copies, was blacklisted from Hollywood at the height of McCarthyism.
Widely considered the first Mexican actor to break into Hollywood, Dolores del Rio became one of the 20th century's greatest stars. With the advent of McCarthyism, however, she was blacklisted from the American film industry as a result of her alleged anti-fascist actions in the Spanish Civil War.
Sources: (History) (Slate) (InsideHook)
See also: These stars have been banned from entering certain countries
Burgess Meredith's (pictured left) career spanned multiple decades and mediums, starring in 1939's 'Of Mice and Men' and appearing in the Rocky franchise of the 1970s and 1980s, but that doesn't mean his career was without hardships. HUAC decided that Meredith was a communist, and he all but disappeared from the film world for more than a decade as a result.
The champion of detective stories in the 20th century, novelist Dashiell Hammett gave birth to immensely popular plots such as 'The Maltese Falcon' and 'The Thin Man.' When he wasn't busy writing, Hammett acted as the chairman of the Civil Rights Congress (CRC), an organization whose purpose was to pay the bails of political prisoners. The CRC was eventually officially designated as a communist organization, and Hammett wound up blacklisted and in jail.
When governments are looking to snuff out an ideology from their populace, art is almost always the first arm of culture to come under attack. Prominent figures in film and music whose opinions are trusted by the public can become dangerous enemies of the state if their views aren't in line with those of the government they operate under. Hunts for cultural upsetters have been commonplace throughout history, but only once in American history was it as widespread or as hysterical as under McCarthyism. Commonly compared to a witch hunt, the first decades of the Cold War were rife with government committees and tribunals dedicated to rooting out every last hint of communist, socialist, or anarchist sentiment from the American entertainment industry. And many prominent figures, several of whom are celebrated today, paid for their alleged insurgency with their careers.
Read on to find out which stars were put on Hollywood's communist blacklist.
Which stars were on Hollywood's communist blacklist?
The Second Red Scare and its effects on American creativity
CELEBRITY History
When governments are looking to snuff out an ideology from their populace, art is almost always the first arm of culture to come under attack. Prominent figures in film and music whose opinions are trusted by the public can become dangerous enemies of the state if their views aren't in line with those of the government they operate under. Hunts for cultural upsetters have been commonplace throughout history, but only once in American history was it as widespread or as hysterical as under McCarthyism. Commonly compared to a witch hunt, the first decades of the Cold War were rife with government committees and tribunals dedicated to rooting out every last hint of communist, socialist, or anarchist sentiment from the American entertainment industry. And many prominent figures, several of whom are celebrated today, paid for their alleged insurgency with their careers.
Read on to find out which stars were put on Hollywood's communist blacklist.